Business Studies with Specialisms Essay

Discuss the characteristics of the scientific method which makes it superior over other methods as a means of obtaining new and reliable knowledge Introduction Marketing research has borrowed liberally from other disciplines; this is not surprising because research methodologies and techniques have application over many fields of study. Like other emerging disciplines, marketing research theory has been developed by creative adaptation rather than blind adoption. The extent to which marketing theory has been built on borrowed concepts was noted some years ago by the Marketing Science Institute of America. Historically, most sciences started by borrowing their conceptual approach and general theoretical ideas from other sciences. Joyce1 has observed that: Market research is not a practice or study isolated from other practices or studies. It has drawn freely from certain expert academic fields and will no doubt continue to do so. Further, market research organisations make use of people with expert, specialist training – especially from those fields known broadly as ‘the social sciences ‘ – both as staff members and consultants. It took a long while to determine how is the world better investigated. One way is to talk about it. For example: Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, stated that males and females have different number of teeth, without bothering to check; he then provided long arguments as to why this is the way things ought to be. This method is unreliable: to determine whether a statement is correct it requires evidence. Debating over a subject or putting an argument forward does not qualify as proof. Consideration of the history of research methods requires a look at the history of science. What is Science? A basic question asked by many and answered in almost as many ways. Early roots of science begin with Plato (427-347 B.C.) and his search for everlasting truth and reality. James Randi2 defines science as: ‘a careful, disciplined, logical search for knowledge about any and all aspects of the universe, obtained by examination of the best available evidence. What’s left is magic. And it doesn’t work.’ We can define science as a methodical approach to the acquisition of knowledge. This important word distinguishes how a scientist works from how people learn about the world. Ross Koning3 has some personal observations: ‘Creation must have occurred because life was not always here. Science is merely saying creation was not sudden and is still on-going. Science does not deny existence of God, God just cannot be tested scientifically. Scientists are commonly very religious. Science is the acquisition of truth.’ Modern science is an amazing phenomenon, and curiosity of how it works will continue to occupy people’s minds. The Scientific Method On a broad level, science is a methodology for attaining knowledge, where knowledge is a form of belief distinct from mere opinion or uninformed guesswork. Science is not the knowledge gained through the approach; hence, knowledge can be gained through a variety of ways. Science seeks out better ways of representing our experiences. The experiences and their representation in a system of beliefs are termed, respectively, observation and theory. Recognizing that personal and cultural beliefs influence both our perceptions and our interpretations of natural phenomena, the aim is through the use of standard procedures and criteria to minimize those influences when developing a theory. A better approach is to do experiments and perform careful observations. The results of this approach are universal in the sense that they can be reproduced by any skeptic. It is from these ideas that the scientific method was developed. What is the â€Å"scientific method†? The scientific method is the best way yet discovered for scrutinizing the truth from lies and delusion. It is based upon evidence rather than belief. This distinguishes science from faith. The scientific method revolves around the following key steps: 1. Observe some aspect of the universe 2. Invent a tentative description, called a hypothesis, that is consistent with what you have observed 3. Use the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations 4. Perform experimental tests of the predictions and modify hypothesis 5. Return to step 3 to ensure of no discrepancies between theory and experiment. The scientific method is founded upon direct observation of the world around us. A scientist looks critically and attempts to avoid all sources of bias in this observation. But more than looking, a scientist measures to quantify the observations; this helps in avoiding bias. Which of these lines is longer? The both lines are the same length, though human bias might generate belief that one is longer than the other. The scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of bias or prejudice in the experiment when testing a hypothesis or a theory. The next part of the scientific method is to form a hypothesis. This is merely an educated guess. You examine the literature on the subject and gather as much knowledge from books as possible to begin to arrive at an answer. This tentative answer†¦this best educated guess†¦is your hypothesis. There is one important aspect to the hypothesis. It must be rejectable. There must be a way to test the possible answer to try to make it fail. If you design an untestable hypothesis, then science cannot be used to help you decide if it is right or not. For example: you hypothesis that ‘God is awake’. There is no way to test your hypothesis scientifically; therefore, there is no way to make it fail. If the experiments bear out the hypothesis it may come to be regarded as a theory, which then provides rational statements that explain a phenomena. This theory produces explanations to observations and predictions are made. To a scientist a theory is a conceptual framework that explains existing observations and predicts new ones. On the other hand, if the experiments do not bear out the hypothesis, it must be rejected or modified. Prediction is a way to put the hypothesis to a test. The prediction has three parts: 1. If my hypothesis is true†¦ 2. Then_____ should happen 3. When_____ is manipulated The manipulation is what you knew would likely falsify your hypothesis. If this prediction holds then you will not be able to reject your hypothesis. If this prediction does not hold then you will reject your hypothesis. The scientific method requires that an hypothesis be ruled out or modified if its predictions are clearly and repeatedly incompatible with experiment tests. In every experimental science, ‘experiment is supreme’ and experimental verification of hypothetical predictions is absolutely necessary. Experiments may test the theory directly or may test for consequences derived from the theory using mathematics and logic. The necessity of experiment also implies that a theory must be testable. Theories which cannot be tested, because, for instance, they have no observable ramifications, do not qualify as scientific theories. One of the key factors of scientific method is that the theory must be falsifable. Sir Karl Popper (1902-1994): Falsificationism (1993) Demarcation Criteria: Science is divided from psuedo-science or â€Å"myth† by making statements which are potentially falsifiable. When a hypothesis passes the test it is adopted as a theory it correctly explains a range of phenomena it can, at any time, be falsified by new experimental evidence. When exploring a new set or phenomena scientists do use existing theories, however, it is always kept in mind that the old theories might fail to explain the new experiments and observations. In this case new hypotheses are devised and tested until a new theory emerges. A theory is accepted not based on the prestige or convincing powers of the proponent, but on the results obtained through observations and experiments which anyone can reproduce. Most experiments and observations are repeated many times. If the original claims are not verified the process returns to the origin of such discrepancies. Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It attempts to answer the basic question: what distinguishes true (adequate) knowledge from false (inadequate) knowledge? Practically, this question translates into issues if scientific methodology: how can one develop theories or models that are better than competing theories? It is possible to construct a useful and reliable model for understanding scientific reasoning, known as the â€Å"Hypothetico-Deductive† model. The heart of the â€Å"Hypothetico-Deductive† model is deductive reasoning (induction plays a role primarily in generating laws about observations that are then deduced from theory, such as the law of multiple proportions). According to the H-D model, hypotheses and theories are sets of general principles that are said to explain and predict observable results. A theory is successful insofar as observable consequences can be deduced from those general principles and statements. When a positive instance of a predicted observation occurs, it is said to confirm that theory. Deductive and Inductive Thinking In logic, two broad methods of reasoning are referred to: the deductive and inductive approaches. Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a ‘top-down’ approach. The process may begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data – a confirmation (or not) of our original theories. Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. Informally, it is often known as a â€Å"bottom-up† approach. In inductive reasoning, the process begins with specific observations and measures, then patterns and regularities are detected, formulating some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories. Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more open-ended and exploratory, especially at the beginning. Deductive reasoning is narrower in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses. Even though a particular study may look like it’s purely deductive (e.g., an experiment designed to test the hypothesized effects of some treatment on some outcome), most social research involves both inductive and deductive reasoning processes at some time in the project. The two graphs above can be assembled into a single circular one that continually cycles from theories down to observations and back up to theories. Even in the most constrained experiment, the researchers may observe patterns in the data that lead them to develop new theories. Comparison of Properties Deduction 1. In a valid deductive argument, all of the content of the conclusion is present, at least implicitly, in the premises. Deduction is nonampliative 2. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Valid deduction is necessarily truth preserving. 3. If new premises are added to a valid deductive argument (and none of its premises are changed or deleted) the argument remains valid. Deduction is erosion-proof. 4. Deductive validity is an all-or-nothing matter; validity does not come in degrees. An argument is totally valid, or it is invalid Induction 1. Induction is ampliative. The conclusion of an inductive argument has content that goes beyond the content of its premises. 2. A correct inductive argument may have true premises and a false conclusion. Induction is not necessarily truth preserving. 3. New premises may completely undermine a strong inductive argument. Induction is not erosion-proof. 4. Inductive arguments come in different degrees of strength. In some inductions the premises support the conclusions more strongly than in others. Source: Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. Merilee H. Salmon, John Earman, Clark Glymour, James G. Lennox, Peter Machamer, J.E. McGuire, John D. Norton, Wesley C. Salmon, and Kenneth H. Schaffner. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1992. Available: http://dharma-haven.org/science/myth-of-scientific-method.htm Non-Scientific Sources 1. Common Sense People often refer to their knowledge and skills as common sense. It is good sense in everyday affairs. For example: The old farmer didn’t have much education but had always gotten along on a lot of common sense. He is hopeful that in the event of another war the world powers may summon enough common sense to avoid mass atomic destruction. Having a practical intelligence in different situations can derive knowledge that is of immense value. This practical intelligence has been gained naturally from the individual’s experience throughout their life and cannot be applied to any education or training. The experiences that an individual has been through during their life may affect their ability to produce unbiased knowledge. 2. Trial and Error Trial and Error is a method of learning by trying out different responses to a new situation until one response is successful. The desired result is then played on for future use and noted by the researcher. It can be quite a time consuming activity, however, similar problems in the future may benefit from the experiment. 3. Tenacity Tenacity is the determination to continue what you are doing. It means that the knowledge derived from previous studies must be recognised as it holds true value for a long period of time. 4. Intuition Intuition is a psychological and philosophical term which designates the process of immediate apprehension or perception of an actual fact, being or relation between two terms and its results. As an element of educational method intuition means the grasp of knowledge by concrete, experimental or intellectual, ways of apprehension. The importance of intuition as a process and element of knowledge is easily seen if we observe that it is intuition which furnishes us with the first experimental data as well as with the primary concepts and the fundamental judgements or principles which are the primitive elements and the foundation of every speculation. 5. Authority An expert provides knowledge on a particular subject, whereby subordinates accept the idea or concept as a respected source of knowledge. 6. Rationalism Rationalism is a philosophical movement which attempts to study the universe using reason, in the form of deductive and mathematical methods, rather than sense experience. Descartes, for example, tried to deduce what God’s world is like from the axioms of divine existence and goodness. When sourcing knowledge rationalism can be misleading when it is used alone, however, improving the accuracy of the principles associated with the subject will result in better sourcing. 7. Empiricism Any view which bases our knowledge, or the materials from which it is constructed, on experience through the traditional five senses. It is opposed to rationalism and denies that we have any a priori knowledge or innate ideas: we owe all our concepts to experience of the world. A priori knowledge is any kind of knowledge that is in no way derived from sense experience, observation or experiment. What might be called the classical empiricist view is associated especially with Locke, the first of the so-called British Empiricists, and his successors Berkeley and Hume. Empiricism has its roots in the idea that all we can know about the world is what the world cares to tell us; we must observe it neutrally and dispassionately, and any attempt on our part to mould or interfere with the process of receiving this information can only lead to distortion and arbitrary imaging. Conclusion The scientific method is intricately associated with science, the process of human inquiry that pervades the modern era on many levels. While the method appears simple and logical in description, there is perhaps no more complex question than that of knowing how we come to know things. In comparison with the non-scientific sources the emphasis here is that the scientific method distinguishes science from other forms of explanation because of its requirements of systematic experimentation. We use specific methods because they are objective, public and can give repeatable results. The question of how science is so successful at improving understanding is hardly every presented as a question at all. No matter what happens, you will learn something. Science is not only about getting ‘the answer’. Scientists who study extremely complex problems can spend a lifetime and not find ‘the answer’. Even so, their results may eventually play a part in completing the full picture of understanding. Animal and children may learn about whatever they pay attention to, and so do scientists.

Bo Burnham by Bo Burnham

Bo Burnham â€Å"I’m the greatest rapper ever,† as said by he himself, Bo Burnham in his hit song â€Å"I’m Bo Yo† from the self-titled album, â€Å"Bo Burnham.† If I were to say so, I’d have to agree with this statement. Bo Burnham, a musician, comedian, actor and singer/songwriter, is most known for the thing he created out of most or all of these traits, a great freestyle rapper. The greatest parts about this whole thing is when I got the album, how I found out he was discovered, and how well he can do his thing. I bought the album â€Å"Bo Burnham† off of iTunes one day because I had just found my favorite song-to-be, â€Å"I’m Bo Yo.† I went through the whole album and could have just laughed my head off. His songs are nicely put together for a freestyle rap album. Every song I listened to was turning into my new favorite song by him. I was kind of expecting this to happen however, as I like freestyle rap because it’s made up as you go. Pretty much every song he writes, or thinks of, is coming from the top of his head, and that’s what I like about it; it’s original! Bo started his career while writing songs and performing them to his fellow classmates. He then decided to tape himself singing them and post the videos on YouTube. He intended to do this so his brother Pete could watch them as he was at college at the time, but never did he expect what was about to happen next. In the fall of 2007, a talent agency called The Gersh Agency, called up Bo and told him that he needed to be represented by them. It was a dream come true. Bo Burnham can rap as well as anyone, people like Eminem and such. Bo may be criticized about the music he creates and plays, but what really matters to him, is that he gets to do what he wants. So if you ever decide, â€Å"hey I wanna do freestyle rap someday†, please give Bo Burnham a good listen. He’s got plenty of good ideas and songs about what to think about. Just give him a listen because you may be surprised about what you hear. If you like comedians, he’s your guy. If you like rap, he might as well be your guy! Just a warning to people, his songs may include profanity, but it’s still worth the listen!

Letter from the Birmingham Jail Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Letter from the Birmingham Jail - Essay Example "Letter from Birmingham Jail" takes a very important place in the history of the movement for human rights and is perfect expression of reasoning for non-violent resistance. The author of this letter, Martin Luther King, believed that once injustice occurs, it becomes a threat to justice everywhere."This letter this famous preacher wrote in response to the appeal, in which the clergy characterized the activities of black activists as "unreasonable" and the late, criticized activists for organizing demonstrations, spoke approvingly about the city authorities and the police. King’s letter is a direct response to criticism of his ideas by church representatives, but in fact, he refers to everyone who does not approve racism, but considers methods of nonviolent struggle to be too radical.His letter is full of arguments of a true Christian;he uses many Old and New Testament associations and images, quotations, references to Christ's example. King's main claim is that the main obsta cle on the way of human being to freedom is not politicians, but citizens themselves, as often they are more devoted to "order" than to justice and believe in the myth about time and constantly advise to those who are oppressed to wait for a better moment.

Assigment 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Assigment 5 - Essay Example The web studio 5.0 is one of the most recent and reliable Web Design Software (Fowler and Victor 5). The program is a creation of the Back To The Beach Software Company. The program also offers 30 days trail for interested customers. The 30 days trail involves full web design operation and function, free website hosting and technology support. Despite being cheaper, the program has numerous useful applications. Net Objects Fusion Essentials is also another useful website program. The program also offers free services for individuals who are interested in using website services. Some of the basic features of the program entail ecommerce tools, photo gallery, quick times, flash builder, and rollover images. The Trendy Flash Site Builder is one of the most effective and reliable web design software. By using this program, an individual has the capability of creating SEO optimized website that has stunning tools and graphics. The programs also has other reliable features that include unl imited customizations, music library, text effects, pay pal integration as well as premade web site design. Compared to other programs, the Trendy Flash Site Builder is relatively cheap and affordable. Apache web server software is also reliable and effective web design software. ... Despite offering better services to its customers the programs is also cheap to learn and maintain. FrontPage Web Design Program is also reliable web design software. In order to use the program, the user needs to pay for the services and secure a license of using its services. This program is also created and supported by companies that have he will of making huge amount of profit. Huge number people can also use the services of this program at one specific time. The program also has a support team that offers 24 hours services to its customers (Plumley and Warren 67). Paint.NET is also reliable web design software that is accessible to huge number of website users. This web design software is copyrighted software that is available for both personal use and for downloading importance programs from the website. This program is free but the frequent users of the programs are requested to pay small contribution for the maintenance of the program. After paying the required registration fee, an individual become a permanent member with the authority of effectively using the program. Among the six common webs design software, the Web Studio 5.0 is one of the most reliable web design software. This is owing to the fact that the program is easy to learn and manage. The maintenance cost of the program is also friend among all website users. The programs also has drag interface and it is easy to drop. The program is also fasters and facilitate easy creation of professionals website. This web design software has various features such as video tutorial, menu maker and PayPal shopping cart. However, despite being one of the most reliable web design software, the program is relatively expensive compared to other programs. In addition, the process of acquiring the programs

The first machine age Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The first machine age - Essay Example In addition, the development of the printing press technology meant that the public had a variety of sources to get information from, apart from the church – all these changes brought a lot of inspiration especially on the arena of aesthetic (Banham, 1980). Just like the Machine Age, the architects and other designers had an assortment of materials to choose from, unlike in the ancient times when this was limited. Designers started to adopt things that they could call their own, and this led to the development of various artistic movements such as purism, Nouveau, De Stijl, Constructivism, Bauhaus, and Scandinavian. All these movements brought about a lot of impacts on different fields of visual worlds including architecture, furniture, graphic designs, art, life style, and so on (Banham, 1980). This paper will briefly discuss each of these movements and then delve into some of the symbolic examples from these movements, which have made a key impact on different kinds of conte mporary designs. Purism Purism was an alternative of Cubism, and was an inspiration of mechanization. During the machine age, two French artists (Amedee Ozenfant [1886-1966] and Edouard Jeanneret [1886-1965]) provided a response to the fascination and perplexity of pure functionality. The two artists expressed their belief in the significance of artistic rigour, impersonality and precision under the label of Purism. The two French artists who were later known as Le Corbusier sought a more rational elucidation of Cubism, beyond its symbolic and literary baggage and decorative or dynamic motivation. The aim of purist theory was to reinstate painting to an archaic purity in which case representation would be logical, geometrical and patently obvious. The aesthetic of industrial technology and machines was used to model this ideal of essentiality and efficiency in art, which Le Corbusier suggested as a possible repertory of plastic forms (Matteson Art, n.d). : Figure 1: Le Corbusier,  oil on canvas,  1926 The major objective of their work was to provide an illustration of collective values such as asceticism, order and lucidity. Part of their manifesto stated that the utmost pleasure of the human spirit was the recognition of order and the utmost fulfillment of humans was to be experienced in assisting in production, or being an essential part of this order. As shown in figure 1, their paintings were somewhat completely still life representations of domestic components including pipes, jugs, and glasses. Evidently described against a straightforward perspectives level surface, their works complied with a ‘a general grammar of sensibility’ that standardized creative relationships, simplified forms, and drew away emotivity and accident in replacement with chromatic fields and a synthesis of lines. In October 1920, Le Corbusier together with the poet Paul Dermee introduced a review in order to publish their purist and rational principles. This led to publishing of L'Esprit Nouveau magazine for 5 years on a regular basis, until 1925. This publication, perhaps, succeeded in making an original contribution to the avant-garde European movements, which worked better than the earlier repetitive paintings that were produced by Le Corbusier (Marshall, 2008). Art Nouveau Art Nouveau was a movement that was associated with decorative architecture and arts in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Europe. This movement, which

Answer 6 guiding questions by reading 2 readings Essay

Answer 6 guiding questions by reading 2 readings - Essay Example Moreover, border policing has established considerations as people themselves entail in a single tribe. Consequently, some of the changes in the border policing that have led to reservation at Tohono Oodham include tribal officials resolving in continuation of the provision of shuttle rides north for Mexican members that needed medical treatment in the Arizona reservation. Many view the border patrol as an occupying force because cultural sensitivity training for the border agents not to offend law-abiding tribal members, developed reservation that felt hostility toward the border patrol. Border patrol helicopters fly above to help agents based on the ground and trace groups dropped by cattle trucks. The activities above view border patrol as an occupying force (Ellingwood 124). Pulido argues that accepting â€Å"white privilege† is essential for understanding the spatiality of environmental racism because scholarships on environmental racism can be strengthened and assists in shaping various forms of racism (Pulido 55). Pulido argues that standard ways of understanding environmental racism as questions of "sitting, intentionality, and scale† take â€Å"racism and space as discrete objects, rather than social relation, for her this is a problem since environmental racism is the result of millions of individual choices that reflect specific racial formations (Pulido 335). Pulido, Laura. â€Å"Rethinking Environmental Racism: White Privilege And Urban Development In Southern California,† In J. Giesking And W. Mangold (Eds.), The People, Place, And Space Reader, New York: Routledge.2014. pp.

Special Education Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Special Education - Coursework Example The discrepancies will indicate whether it is a disability or lower achievement (NICHCY, n.p.). Carmen is likely at risk for behavioral and social problems, due to poor perception by other students who has no learning disability, who are likely to perceive her as incompetent, thus alienating her from social inclusion. This will affect her self esteem, thus impacting on her behavior and ability to interact with the rest. c. Dyslexia- is characterized by difficulty with learning to read fluently and with accurate comprehension despite normal intelligence. This includes phonological awareness, phonological decoding, processing speed, orthographic coding, auditory short-term memory, language skills/ verbal comprehension, and or rapid naming. d. Dyscalculia- is difficulty in learning or comprehending arithmetic, such as difficulty in understanding numbers, and learning math facts. It is generally seen as a specific developmental disorder like